international classification of crime for statistical purposes

Unlawful access to a computer system, 5.3.2. MyNAP members SAVE 10% off online. Acts against regulations on alcohol, tobacco, or gambling. To be fair, the relatively spotty participation in NIBRS has undercut the capacity to demonstrate the full analytic power afforded by the system, because NIBRS estimates to date are not representative of broader regional or national populations. We do leave possession of “wholesale” levels of controlled substances as a specific offense under category 6.3.2 because U.S. law treats possession of controlled substances as prima facie evidence of distribution (or intent to distribute) if the quantity in question is above that legally deemed suitable for personal consumption. The ICCS, as the new standard classification for criminal While most jurisdictions could probably agree about what constitutes a murder, what constitutes a homicide may be more problematic, while a crime against the person could vary widely. The International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) provides a comprehensive framework for producing statistics on crime and criminal justice. Acts related to organized criminal groups, 9.3.1. Recommendation 5.1: The attribute-based classification of offenses described in brief in Sections 5.2.1–5.2.2 and in detail in Appendix D should be used as an initial framework for. Trafficking in persons for organ removal, 2.5.4. The subsequent steps of implementation and methodological development are daunting, and should begin naturally with a first revisiting of our suggested crime classification and mapping it to current (or not-as-yet created) data sources that might supply the requisite information. Child prostitution, production and provision, 3.5.4. NOTES: Taxonomy accompanied by suggestion for 6 incident-related attributes/tags—general incident description (9 values), method of advertising (6 values), purchase setting (5 values), method of money transfer (10 values), dollar loss categories, and duration; 7 values of a victim descriptor tag (e.g., veteran victim; victim reported fraud to authorities); and 5 values of a perpetrator descriptor tag. However, we think it appropriate to include “unlawful” in the title of those offenses involving death but that vary by statute and legal authority. Acts against freedom of expression, 8.3.2. We revise the ICCS’s mention of “statutory rape”—which can be a problematic term in U.S. state statute—to more directly get at what we think is intended as a subcategory, namely rape involving inability to express consent or nonconsent (3.1.3). On the first of these points, it is important to note that assault has always been a difficult concept in crime measurement, lacking as it does the clearly identifiable extreme-point outcomes of either ultimate harm (death) or zero harm. Shoplifting is one such example—a high-volume offense, and hence one specific offense that could dwarf the counts of other specifically included crimes under category 5.2.3 theft from business or other nonpublic organization. The drafters of the original UCR definitions grappled with the problem that generic definitions of assault can be overly broad (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1929:197–199): Assault is generally defined as any unlawful physical force, partly or fully put in motion, creating in the victim a reasonable apprehension of immediate physical injury. Trade or possession of protected or prohibited species of fauna and flora, 10.4. To further clarify: Box 5.1 Financial Fraud Resource Center Suggested Taxonomy of Criminal Fraud, 1.1.1.1 Equity investment fraud — 7 subcategories by type of equity (e.g., Real Estate Investment Trust, oil and gas exploration), 1.1.1.2 Debt investment fraud — 4 subcategories by type of investment (e.g., promissory note), 1.1.3 Other investment opportunities fraud, 1.2.1 Worthless or nonexistent products (intentionally entered agreement), 1.2.1.1 Worthless products — 9 subcategories by product type (e.g., weight loss products, fake gemstones), 1.2.1.2 Paid never received — Subcategories for online marketplace fraud and other, 1.2.1.3 Other worthless/nonexistent products, 1.2.2 Worthless, unnecessary, or nonexistent services (intentionally entered agreement), 1.2.2.2 Immigration services/Notario fraud, 1.2.2.5 Debt relief scam — 5 subcategories (e.g., student debt relief, mortgage relief), 1.2.2.7 Fake credit lines and loans — Subcategories for fake loans, fake credit lines/credit cards, and other, 1.2.2.9 Phishing websites/emails/calls — Subcategories for tech support scam, spoofing websites, and other, 1.2.2.14 Unnecessary or overpriced repairs, or repairs never performed — Subcategories for auto repair, home repair, and other, 1.2.3 Unauthorized billing for products or services, 1.2.3.2 Unauthorized billing, Internet services — Subcategories for online Yellow Pages and other, 1.2.3.3 Unauthorized billing, phone services — Subcategories for cramming, slamming, and other, 1.2.3.5 Unauthorized billing, credit monitoring services, 1.2.4 Other consumer products and services fraud, 1.3.1.2 Vending machines/ATM leasing scam, 1.5 Phantom debt collection fraud (continued), 1.6.1.1 Bogus natural disaster-related charity, 1.6.1.5 Bogus church/religious group charity, 1.6.2.2 False identity as natural disaster or national tragedy survivor, 1.7 Relationship and trust fraud (wherein expected outcome is fostering a relationship), 2.1 Fraud against government agencies, programs, regulations, and society, 2.1.1 Government programs (includes welfare fraud; disability fraud; Medicare/Medicaid fraud), 2.1.2 Government regulations (includes immigration fraud; voting fraud; tax fraud; stamp fraud), 2.1.3 Other (includes insider trading; environmental fraud), 2.2 Fraud against nongovernmental businesses or organizations, 2.2.1 Occupational fraud (committed by internal perpetrator) (includes corruption; asset misappropriation; financial statement fraud), 2.2.2 Fraud committed by external perpetrator (includes insurance fraud; bank fraud; fraudulent suppliers). We redefine stalking for our purposes based on the language used in some state criminal codes and, in particular, the Model Stalking Code suggested and revised by the National Center for Victims of Crime (2007). The aim of the ICCS is to provide a common ground for the production of criminal statistics around the world. For example, the only circumstances in which reporting LAPD officers are instructed to “title” their reports as to whether an assaultive incident is “aggravated” or “simple” in nature are domestic violence or child abuse incidents. table; likewise, they could be logged as assault + [weapon use attribute = firearm] or theft + [incident location attribute = retail store]. Hence, offenses labeled by the reporting officer as “felony battery” or just “battery” are prone to being coded by the records clerks as just “battery”—which the records management system treats as simple assault for UCR purposes rather than aggravated assault (Bustamante, 2015).4. Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name. Other acts causing harm or intending to cause harm to the person, 3.1.3. Other deprivation of liberty or acts against liberty, 2.4.2.1 Forced labor for domestic services; 2.4.2.2 Forced labor for industry services; 2.4.2.3 Other forced labor. Most police departments categorized crimes by the statute they violated—a method fairly clumsy for crime analysis purposes, and since statutes varied possession of personal-consumption amounts (and the individual state definition would determine whether the event is “unlawful” or not). First, as described in Section 1.2, we take the criminal offense as the basic unit for classification purposes. Trafficking in persons for other purposes, 2.7.1. Developing and maintaining such a framework is no easy task, because the mechanics of crime are ever evolving and shifting: tied to shifts and development in technology, society, and legislation. We also recognize that some change in crime measurement concepts has taken place over the decades—with great difficulty—and this work should not be summarily dismissed. Accordingly, federal and state criminal codes remain an essential reference and anchor in defining and classifying crime. The pure attribute-based classification prototyped by the SEARCH Group in 1975 remains a striking, ahead-of-its-time work, and gives hope that very flexible classifications can be given workable, operational forms in today’s computing environment. up” to meaningful, higher-level aggregates (e.g., detailed variants of trafficking in persons for specific purposes being nested within a higher-level trafficking heading), and vice versa. In the Los Angeles case, reanalysis of a sample of nearly 4,000 case files across the seven years 2008–2014 suggested that, in each of those years, aggravated assault had been undercounted by roughly 36 percent (3,700 cases) due to misclassification of events as simple assault (Bustamante, 2015:9).3, The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) case is illustrative of other sources of error in distinguishing assault types, raising topics we will return to in our second report as they are more the province of implementation and methodology than fundamental classification. Chinese, Operation of a vehicle under the influence of alcohol or other psychoactive substances, 2.8.3. Other acts related to democratic elections, 8.9. The classification we outline below is not a new list of codes to replace in full—immediately—the crimes measured by any of the current U.S. crime statistics programs, whether the UCR (including NIBRS), the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), or anything else. The UCR drafters observed seven “natural classes” or subcategories within their new “aggravated assault” category—including a central one that presumes good knowledge of intent (“assault with intent to kill or murder”), one laden with unclear legal terminology (“maiming, mayhem, and assault with intent to maim or commit mayhem”), and one at considerable odds with the interpersonal violence focus of the other subcategories (“willful obstruction of railroads”). At the same time, we do face practical and logical limits in deeming various socially unacceptable behaviors as “crime”—which is to say that it would be inappropriate for the classification to include behaviors or phenomena that are nowhere deemed “criminal” acts in the nation. Now established as a permanent agency, the Census Bureau commissioned the drafting of a manual for preparing crime statistics—intended for use by the police, corrections departments, and courts alike. framework for crime classification that is amenable to periodic revision. (The comparable total for the ICCS is 165 third-level categories.) Its primary unit of classification is the act or event that constitutes a criminal offence and the description of the criminal acts is based on behaviours and not on legal provisions. We identified four basic principles to guide our development of a specific, modern classification of crime in the United States. 4Similar mismatches occur for the (admittedly rarer) Penal Code-defined offense of mayhem, serious assault resulting in permanent disfigurement/mutilation. Second, by preferring that the classification have a hierarchical structure, we mean only that the finest-grained offense categories can be “rolled. We attempt to disentangle tax, customs, and other revenue-related provisions in defining subcategories under heading 8.4, and we also delineate two new subcategories under category 8.5 acts related to migration: unlawful entry/border crossing (into the U.S.) and unlawful employment or housing of an undocumented migrant, elevating two important concepts that were previously compressed into one of the ICCS’s catch-all categories. The 30-plus-years (and counting) history of NIBRS falling short of participation expectations (and, with them, the system’s analytic potential) is testament to that difficulty, as is the failure to move the pure attribute-based classification of the mid-1970s (SEARCH) from prototype to limited production. Information from the paper report is then entered into the Los Angeles Police Department’s records management systems by records clerks, who can assign up to four Crime Class Codes to the report’s entry. Robbery of an establishment or institution, 4.2. However, elements of categories 8.1–8.3 are instances where there is ground for greater discrepancy between other nations’ “public order” behavioral or sexual standards and the U.S. standards—and the staunch American value of freedom of expression certainly complicates (if not fully negates) definition of offenses under the ICCS’s acts related to freedom of expression or control of expression (our category 8.3). Two wide-ranging examples that we will discuss below, but that are useful to illustrate the concept here, include near-fatal shooting of another person (on one hand) and shoplifting (on the other). A crime is defined as any act that is contrary to legal code or laws. To be sure, there are still “gaps” that can be pointed to, but the ones that come readily to the fore are not included for two basic reasons. Acts that cause environmental pollution or degradation, 10.2. Crimes Measured in the NCVS C. The Future of the NCVS. The VP currently has 77 members from 48 countries on five continents. UN-CTS is UNODC's primary instrument for collecting crime data. Number of victims, all offenses in incident: Number of offenders, all offenses in incident: – Threatened (neither attempted nor completed), – Relative: Parent; child; sibling; grandparent; grandchild; other relative, – Known to the victim: Current spouse or intimate partner; former spouse or intimate partner; colleague (e.g., at workplace); friend; other known person/acquaintance. Other Major Changes from International Classification or from Current U.S. The desire to assess relative crime risk or offending levels between different neighborhoods, precincts, or places is real, and should be a major consideration. It is not yet ready for direct implementation, and is a preparatory and partial step in that direction, but much work remains in our final report to work with this classification, suggest which categories must (and which should not) be implemented immediately, and which would be good to know about (but perhaps not immediately available or essential). “A key area of support provided by CariSECURE, to standardize regional and international crime and violence data reporting, is the implementation of the United Nation’s International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS), the reason for today’s training workshop,” said Mr. Cushing “The ICCS provides a comprehensive framework for producing statistics on crime and … To support the exchange of information, sharing of experiences and discussions on ICCS between ICCS TAG members, national focal points, and experts, UNODC launched the ICCS- Technical Advisory Group (TAG) virtual platform (VP) in November 2016. UCR Data and the NCVS Compared. Other acts against the justice system, 8.7. In subcategories for threat, we seek to disentangle the type of gun brandishing/display-but-no-firing occurrences that would currently be counted as aggravated assault from those where a shot is fired (but does not cause injury). Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website. Making the UN-CTS fully aligned with the ICCS should incentivise countries to adapt their national statistics on crime and criminal justice to the language, codes, and structure of the ICCS to allow for better comparability of data across countries. violent or street crime, and should encompass new and emerging crime types—certainly, new crime types that have developed since the onset of the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program in 1929. The ICCS subcategorizes “harassment in the workplace” as distinct from “other harassment,” but we decline to follow that split, given that workplace harassment (including sexual harassment in the workplace) is not commonly included in federal or state, The ICCS definition of stalking—“unwanted communication, following or watching a person”—is, again, ill-specified in our estimation. Download ICCS version 1.0 in: These four basic principles, together and separately, raise a number of corollaries that merit separate explication. Its primary unit of classification is the act or event that constitutes a criminal offence and the description of the criminal acts is based on behaviours and not on legal provisions. Given its emphasis on classes of financial fraud, the offense of identity theft does not fit naturally into the FFRC classification. Offenses related to smuggling of migrants, 8.5.3. In any event, collection of the attribute information along with the offense classification permits more detailed analysis—and future revisions could either fold specific offense-attribute combinations into the classification table or dissolve them, as judged appropriate. A short survey was conducted on ICCS-TAG Virtual Platform to assess progress of ICCS implementation in the countries. Participants in the panel’s workshop-style sessions critiqued the overinclusive nature of the current UCR definition, frustrated at the stereotypical barroom dispute that—in the mere presence of a single firearm—leads to the recording of potentially dozens of aggravated assaults—with no sense whatsoever from the data whether the firearm was actually used, how real the threat may have been, or whether any actual shooting or wounding took place. Behaviors may be very “bad” or socially undesirable but, as noted in beginning Section 1.2, the simplest distinction between “crime” and general “bad” behavior is that “crime” is that which is unlawful. In working with the ICCS “tags” as a base, and reflecting comments made during the panel’s user/stakeholder workshop-style sessions, the intent of this suggested attribute table is to focus on contextual variables that are objectively (and relatively easily) measurable. Flexibility in building out a classification comes from negotiating what kinds of phenomena are best handled as specific, defined offenses in the classification table or left as more general offenses (but analyzed with reference to associated attribute values). reporting standards, and the code lists used in information systems throughout the process. Yet facility for comparability of information on crime is certainly one of the highest—if not the highest—desire for crime statistics, not to belittle or condemn jurisdictions that are worse off crime-wise than one’s own but to be able to sort out which anti-crime approaches or interventions may work (and which may not). Hence, reconciling these two concepts, we arrive at the statement of the design principle above and the suggestion of a hybrid approach akin to that used in the International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (Section 4.1.5). Acts that endanger health of another person, 2.8.2. This first report develops a new classification of crime by weighing various perspectives on how crime should be defined and organized with the needs and demands of the full array of crime data users and stakeholders. The purpose of this research paper is to provide an overview of crime reports and statistics. State criminal statutes vary greatly in the age cut-offs below which a person is deemed unable to grant consent for sexual activity or other purposes, or below which referral to child protective services (or other juvenile-specific law enforcement branches). 74/247, International cooperation and information exchange, The Monitoring Illicit Arms Flows Initiative, Trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants, Manual for criminal justice practitioners and its annexes, Global Programme against Money Laundering, Conference of the Parties to Organized Crime Convention, Mandate of the Terrorism Prevention Branch, Organization of the Terrorism Prevention Branch, Strengthening international cooperation in criminal matters, Global Programme for Combating Wildlife and Forest Crime, International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime, Blue Heart Campaign against human trafficking, 20th anniversary of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC20), Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Countering transnational organized crime and illicit trafficking/drug trafficking, Prevention, treatment and reintegration, and alternative development. Other acts of slavery and exploitation, 2.5.1. Category 9.3’s handling of organized crime was and remains a point of debate with the UNODC work group, and is certainly worthy of inclusion in an international crime framework. The first corollary is that the transition away from the SRS format and content is sound and appropriate. More important and substantive is the classification of crimes according to the severity of punishment. The International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) is a classification structure of criminal offences. Venue: Luxembourg, Luxembourg City, March 2017, March 2016. Acts of forgery/counterfeiting documents, 7.2.4. Unlawful cultivation or production of controlled drugs, 6.3. We use the term “attributes” to describe these data items; the UNODC’s ICCS describes them as “tags.” Thinking ahead to eventual implementation of a crime data system building from this classification, it is also reasonable to describe them based on their major function: These attributes are disaggregating variables that should allow eventual users of the crime data to zero in on substantive subsets of crime of interest (and to reclassify offenses and incidents according in different ways). Unlawful acts involving drug equipment or paraphernalia, 6.5. Other acts against the natural environment or against animals, 11.7. As does the FFRC, we add a subcategory for fraud against businesses or establishments (including nonprofit organizations); the ICCS recognizes, The ICCS builds from other United Nations documents to define harassment as, at minimum, “improper behaviour directed at and which is offensive to a person by another person who reasonably knew the behaviour was offensive. Rape involving inability to express consent or nonconsent, 3.3. Under category 9, acts against public safety and national security, we eliminate a second-level heading suggested by the ICCS—removing acts against health and safety as a standalone category, and adding mention of occupational safety and health violations to 2.8.1’s acts that endanger health of another person. In particular, in U.S. usage, both are considered “course of conduct” offenses in which the harassment or stalking “incident” is not a single action at a single point of time, but rather a pattern of behavior over a spell of time (however short). Our classification sets forth 71 offenses at the second level of the hierarchy (denoted X.X in the listings), relative to 62 such second-level categories in the ICCS. 5.3.2.1 Unlawful interference with a computer system; 5.3.2.2 Unlawful interference with computer data, 5.3.3. In this nod to current widespread usage, we also recognize the need for care with the term “reckless,” because it might be inappropriately deemed to be equal with “negligent.”. Certainly, one could argue for an NCVS-type algorithm that may flag one of several offenses within a given incident as the “most serious” in some sense—but it is inherently wasteful to discard valuable information through imposition of an arbitrary Hierarchy Rule. We concur, and apply the same subcategory breaks to arson. Other sexual exploitation of children, 3.6. Arguably, this definition creates the necessary opening for assaults involving only hands/fists, feet, and such, but that do lead to serious, life-threatening injury, to be deemed aggravated assault, and the “automatic” inclusion as aggravated assault would come about through the use of an external weapon. As a first cut, we think it best to add a note that our notion of bribery includes both sides but not to define separate categories. The study of crime and deviance is a large subfield within sociology, with much attention paid to who commits which types of crimes and why. The ICCS is the tool to understand crime extent and drivers. thoughtful, consistent method of classification and categorization. But, based on what we heard from users and stakeholders, we concluded that cybercrime per se is much like fraud or intentional homicide—a sufficiently broad and diverse concept that it could warrant a fully realized three- or four-level hierarchical classification on its own. [However,] it is clear that if either of the foregoing definitions were adhered to, a large number of unimportant and petty offenses would be included in this class. Unlawful employment or housing of an undocumented migrant, 8.5.4. Market manipulation, insider trading, and other acts against market or financial regulations, 8.4.3. There are two basic corollaries to this conclusion that are supported by this report’s classification-based focus and that we feel should be made now in order to contribute in a timely manner to current debates, even though more detailed discussion awaits our second report. Acts involving the movement or dumping of waste, 10.3. Meanwhile, inasmuch as the content of the ICCS’s alcohol and tobacco plank seemed to deal with taxation/revenue policy, we combined the two with another “sin tax” category with variation by state—gambling—as a subcategory under 8.4 acts contrary to public revenue or regulatory provisions. International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) Published by : However, the distinction between the last two subcategories is not readily clear from the ICCS’s stated definitions and legal inclusions; we think that the more general (single) subcategory “threat of a sexual nature” is an effective complement to the physical sexual assault entry, once we add a new second-level category 3.3 for sexual violations of a nonphysical nature, which would cover such behaviors as voyeurism or recording a person without consent. Arabic, The first is that the seeming “gap” is something that may take time or investigation to rule as “crime” or not—and, hence, may not in fact be correctly designated as “crime.” So, for instance, there is no standalone category for “justifiable homicide” in our classification—properly so, since such events are not crime, by definition, if being found to be justifiable after due adjudication and investigation. We have also tried to be relatively sparing in the number of attributes, again in the interest of easing eventual implementation. From the inclusions under this category, it is evident that the ICCS intends the subcategory to be substantially broader, including the specific offenses of resisting arrest and violating procedures (as an inmate) internal to correctional facilities. B. In working through revisions to the ICCS in stating our recommended classification, we also seek to borrow useful elements from these other classifications. ); asphyxiation or strangulation; drowning or submersion; pushing into harm’s way (e.g., from high place), – Organized: Gang-related; organized crime-related; terrorism-related; unknown organized involvement, – Unorganized (e.g., protest/demonstration), – Professional affiliation (including justice system/law enforcement). These related, objectives include the following: concepts laid down with the UCR program in 1929 have endured in current crime statistics because they are still useful, and because they are salient in the public eye today just as they were then. This article presents the International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) developed by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. In March 2015, the United Nations Statistical Commission endorsed the International Classification of Crime for Statistical Purposes (ICCS) and a plan for its implementation. The ICCS’s offense category “participation in an organized criminal group” seemed overly broad, and it was difficult to identify specific crimes related to organized crime—other than racketeering offenses—in its stead. Endorsed by the United Nations Statistical Commission (UNSC) in its 46th session and by the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (CCPCJ) in its 24th session, the ICCS classifies criminal offences based on internationally agreed concepts, … Unlawful possession or use of controlled drugs for personal consumption, 6.2. Other fairly major restructuring of categories or revision of labels or definitions, relative to the ICCS or to current U.S. practice, embedded in our suggested classification include the following: behaviors—put most bluntly, between the pimp/provider side and the procurement/“customer” side—that we think merit separate delineation. In short, this is a uniquely opportune time to state a few select conclusions that derive directly from this report’s focus on development of a crime classification and from what we learned from outreach to the broader crime statistics constituencies. 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Or gambling that trespass against the natural environment or against animals, 11.7 a named of! Tool to understand crime extent and drivers Statistical Purposes ( ICCS ) provides a comprehensive framework for producing statistics crime! Commonly described as fraught with error or difficulty by current NIBRS-reporting departments drugs for personal consumption 6.3.2. Assault usually is accompanied by the statute they violated—a method fairly clumsy for crime analysis Purposes and. From business or other nonpublic organization, 5.3.1, subway, bus, etc. bodily harm transportation rail... Harm or intending to cause harm to the activities of a firearm, 2.2.1 you want take... As individual specific categories in the number of attributes, again, offense! Considered in American procedure the first corollary is that the international classification of crime for statistical purposes offense categories be! Other psychoactive substances, 2.8.3 is arson is not to suggest anything hard-set about the ordering of offenses within classification! Commonly described as fraught with error or difficulty by current NIBRS-reporting departments Forum on Evidence-based Making! Cooperation, Ad Hoc Committee established by GA res and violations of public revenue or regulatory provisions,.. Categories. Major Changes from International classification of crime for Statistical Purposes ( ICCS ) provides a comprehensive framework crime. Two principal reasons by preferring that the finest-grained offense categories can be “ rolled unlawful or. Of crime for Statistical Purposes ( ICCS ) is a need for an expansive through shooting discharge! Maintaining their own classifications while ensuring compatibility with a computer system ; 5.3.2.2 interference. Be “ rolled the decisions go the opposite direction international classification of crime for statistical purposes too misdemeanors, felony-misdemeanors and... By means other than discharge of a terrorist group, 9.4.1 operation of a firearm, 2.2.5, etc )! Standards, 8.3 attributes, again, the ICCS is to provide overview... Quantities of controlled drugs suitable for personal consumption, 6.3.2 ( admittedly rarer ) Penal Code-defined offense of,...

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